Online encyclopedic English-Slovak and Slovak-English

Linguistics Dictionary

Term
The linguistics
field it belongs to

The conceptualization
in the language of origin

Example
Translation accounting
for the content equivalence

calque 

word-formation

a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word translation

masterpiece, pineapple, by heart

kalk

canonical form 

lexicography

within the structure of dictionary entries, the canonical form is a morphological form which traditionally represents the lexeme under consideration in dictionaries; synonym for entry head, headword, lemma

základný tvar, kanonický tvar

cardinal vowels 

phonetics, phonology

Cardinal vowels refer to a framework of vocals serving phoneticians as a base for the description of articulatory features of vocals in a particular language.

In the following picture all cardinal vowels are depicted. These are recognized as the most extreme positions in pronunciation of vowels.



kardinálne vokály

case 

morphology

a grammatical category of a noun; in English, the main distinction is between possessive (Genitive) and common case; this difference means that only the Genitive case has an inflection, all the other case relations are expressed by means of a prepositional case.

N: John G: John’s / of John D: (to) John A: John L: (about) John I: (with) John

pád

cataphora 

stylistics

The use of a word or phrase to refer to a word or group of words which will occur later in the text; forward reference.

the use of the phrase as follows

katafora

causative verb 

morphology

a verb denoting that somebody causes somebody else to do something, or something causes something else to happen; a small group of verbs (to have sb do sth, to get sb to do sth, to make sb do sth, to let sb do sth) - some are followed by bare infinitive, some by to-infinitive

I had/made/let the kids clean the room. I got the kids to clean the room.

kauzatívum, kauzatívne sloveso, kauzatívny predikát

central determiner 

morphology, syntax

one of the three subgroups of determiners in a noun phrase modifying a noun; if all of them are present, the central determiner takes the middle position: a/an, the, zero determiner, possessives, demonstratives, some/any/no, which, whose, etc.

a book, my car, some advice, half an hour, all of my many friends

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje; v princípe ide o typ zhodného prívlastku

central modal verb 

morphology

these are can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must; they are used to express various kinds of modal meaning of a full verb; they express a variety of meanings, e.g. possibility (can, could, may, might), ability (can), permission (can, may), obligation (must, have to), certainty (must, have to), etc.

It can/could/may be him. I can swim. He can join us. I must study for the exam. I had to be there at 5.

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje; v princípe ide o “základné” modálne slovesá

central modifier 

morphology, syntax

the central element in the position of modifier in a noun phrase, e.g.: a/an, the, zero determiner, possessives, demonstratives, some/any/no, which, whose, etc.

the chair, his mother, some people, these two books, both those suitcases

tento koncept v slovenčine neexistuje, táto syntaktická pozícia však môže byť vyjadrená privlastňovacím, ukazovacím, resp. neurčitým zámenom

channel of communication 

stylistics communication theory

Communication channels are the means through which people communicate.

face-to-face, mobile, electronic channels (email, Internet, intranet and social media platforms).

komunikačný kanál

chest-pulse 

phonetics phonology

Chest-pulse is a contraction of the muscles of chest involved in exhalation which has been suggested as one of the central concepts in syllable production theory.

motorický (výdychový) impulz

circumfix 

word-formation

an affix which is a combination of a prefix and suffix

en- -en in enlighten;
em- -en in embolden

cirkumfix

circumlocution 

stylistics

A roundabout or indirect way of speaking; the use of more words than necessary to express an idea; a roundabout expression.

XY received” may be circumlocuted as “XY was made the recipient of”.

rozvláčny spôsob vyjadrovania

circumvention 

stylistics

The act of evading by going around; overcoming in a clever manner.

In practice, broadcasting organisations were easily able to circumvent the ban by using the voices of actors. Times, Sunday Times (2013)

vyhýbavé vyjadro vanie

clause 

syntax

a grammatical construction that expresses the relationship between processes, participants and circumstances in actions, states or events. Clauses are constituents of sentences. Typically, a clause consists of a subject, a verb, and any other required elements such as an object, a complement, or an adverbial.

I love pizza. Mr Jones, who lives next door, is a doctor.

slovenčina nemá adekvátny termín; samostatná predikatívna konštrukcia v rámci súvetia, príp. jednoduchá veta, klauza (v generatívnej gramatike)

cliché 

phraseology

an expression imposed by conventionalized linguistic usage

no matter what, read between the lines, time heals all wounds

klišé

clipping 

word-formation

word-formation process in which part of a longer word is removed to produce a shorter one

gymnasium → gym

skrátené slovo

clitic 

morphology

an element that has hybrid properties - on one side reminds us of a bound morpheme that carries meaning only if attached to a free morpheme; on the other side, it is detached from the free morpheme by means of the apostrophe. In English, it is possessive “s” added to a noun by means of the apostrophe.

Johns

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje;

closed classes 

morphology

these word classes have a fixed number of members, they do not admit new words, their members do not become outdated or eliminated from the system: 1/ pronouns, 2/ determiners, 3/ modal verbs, 4/ primary verbs, 5/ conjunctions, and 6/ prepositions.

1/ he, his, himself, him 2/ a, an, the, zero article 3/ can, used to, had better, be able to 4/ be, to, have 5/ and, so, when, if, that 6/ of, for, to, about, in, etc.

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje; je blízky “neohybným” slovným druhom

cluster 

phonetics phonology

A sequence of consonantal sounds without any vowel within the same syllable is called a cluster.

At the end of word sixth - [sɪksθ], [ksθ] is a cluster.

spoluhláskový zhluk

coarticulation 

phonetics phonology

Coarticulation is a phenomenon closely related to assimilation, however, coarticulation explains one sound becoming like a neighbouring sound by means of articulation process (similar to assimilation, yet assimilation is currently being criticised for its naivety and simplicity).

In phrase good girl [ɡʊɡɡɜːl], both [d] and [g] are voiced stops. However, under the influence of the place of articulation of [g] the place of articulation of [d] is shifted from alveolar ridge to velum, thus it is pronounced as another [g].

koartikulácia

Cockney rhyming slang

stylistics

Cockney rhyming slang phrases are derived from taking an expression which rhymes with a word and then using that expression instead of the word. It originated in Victorian England and is especially prevalent in the UK, Ireland and Australia. It has the effect of obscuring the meaning of what is said from outsiders.

The word “look” rhymes with “butcher’s hook“. In many cases the rhyming word is omitted – so you won’t find too many Londoners having a “butcher’s hook” at the Cockney rhyming slang website, but you might find a few having a “butcher’s”.

Rýmujúci sa slang - Cockney, kultúrny koncept, v slovenčine neexistuje

coda 

phonetics phonology

Coda is a consonantal end of a syllable (it may consist of up to five consonants).

texts - [ t e ksts ] onset peak coda

kóda

cognitive meaning → denotation

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cognitive synonym loose synonym

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coherence 

stylistics

Logical interconnection; overall sense or understandability; systematic or logical connection or consistency. The syntactic or semantic connectivity of linguistic forms at surface-structure level of analysis; the property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken discourse that stems from the links among its underlying ideas and from the logical organization and development of its thematic content.

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously is a sentence put forward by Noam Chomsky in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures to illustrate a sentence that is grammatically correct, but lacks coherence, i. e. in it non-sensical.

koherencia

cohesion 

stylistics

The explicit connection between language units in a text; the property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken discourse that stems from links among its surface elements, as when words in one sentence are repeated in another, and especially from the fact that some words or phrases depend for their interpretation upon material in preceding or following text.

In the sequence “Be assured of this. Most people do not want to fight. However, they will do so when provoked” this refers to the two sentences that follow, they refers back to most people, do so substitutes for the preceding verb fight, and however relates the clause that follows to the preceding sentence.

kohézia

coinage 

word-formation

word-formation process in which a brand-new item is invented to designate a new concept

xerox, kleenex- originally trade names which began to be used in the general vocabulary

neologizmus, novotvar

collective noun 

morphology

a noun denoting a collection of individuals, a group of people, animals, or things; it is either used by itsef (1), or in a prepositional phrase with countable nouns (2)

1/ army, band, congregation, family, committee, cattle;

2/ a swarm of bees, a ring of keys

hromadné substantívum (podstatné meno)

colligation 

lexicology, morpho-syntax

regular grammatical association between words based on syntactic necessity

verbs agree, choose, decline, manage, etc. colligate with to +infinitive constructions, as opposed to -ing forms, I agree to go v. *I agree going.

koligácia

collocate 

lexicology

a component of collocation which is dominated by its base, a word that normally occurs with other words

heavy smoker, rancid butter, pay attention

kolokát

collocation 

phraseology

a combination of lexical items which habitually co-occur and are fully transparent in their meanings, it can consist of an adjective and noun, adverb and adjective, verb and noun etc.

heavy rain (Adj + N), painfully slow (Adv + Adj), check e-mail
(V
+ N)

kolokácia, ustálené slovné spojenie (ale len v jednom význame termínu, t.j. systémové kolokácie v terminológii)

colloquial 

stylistics sociolinguistics

The use of everyday language or slang, often to create local color and to provide an informal tone. The word “colloquialism” comes from the Latin colloquium, which means a “conference” or “conversation.”

Contractions: words such as “ain’t” and gonna” are examples of colloquialism, as they are not used widely throughout English-speaking populations.

hovorový: hovorové slová charakteristické pre bežné neoficiálne prejavy

colloquialism 

lexicology, stylistics

A colloquial expression, style or usage used by educated people in everyday communication

tummy, dad, mommie, ad

hovorové slovo

commissive speech act 

pragmalinguistics/ stylistics

Speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action. Making a commitment, such as a promise or threat, by illocutionary means.

Promises and oaths: “I´ll take care of that mess”.”I swear”

komisívny rečový akt

common case 

morphology

the base form of a noun; the term covering all grammatical cases except Saxon Genitive, i.e. Genitive expressed by means of the apostrophe (‘) + s.

N: John G: of John D: (to) John
A:
John L: (about) John
I: (with) John

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje; v princípe je to súhrnný názov pre všetky gramatické pády v angličtine, ktoré sa nevyjadrujú koncovkou (gramatickou morfémou)

common gender 

morphology

one of the gender classes of nouns that can be treated as personal or non-personal; a) if they are treated as subjects of research, they are considered non-personal and referred to with ‘it’, ‘which’; b) if a speaker has an emotional relationship to them, s/he refers to them as ‘he’ or ‘she’, and ‘who’

1/ baby/child a) baby/child (before they are born) b) The baby is crying; I think she is hungry.

2/ animals a) Can a dog attack its owner? b) I like your dog; is it he or she?

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje

common noun 

morphology

a type of noun refferring to a class of nouns sharing general properties, not identified by unique features; it contrasts with proper noun.

a fox, a pen, a girl, a man

všeobecné podstatné meno

communication 

stylistics communication theory

The process of exchanging information between two or more persons is called communication. It involves the flow of information from a sender to a receiver. A process of meaningful interaction among human beings; it is the process by which, through signs, meanings are perceived and understandings are arrived at.

When we talk to someone via mobile, we engage in communication as there is a flow of informnation between us.

komunikácia

communication means

stylistics pragmalinguistics

Means of sending or receiving information; code, sign system.

E-mail, internet, television, radio, telephone, letter, fax, newspapers, magazines, etc.

komunikačné prostriedky

communication  network

stylistics/general linguistics/ communication theory

Medium used in communication (verbal: oral or written), channel (type of connection between partners) and context.

In an office, the communication network comprises language
(as medium, both oral and written, e.g. dialogues, e
-mails, memos), channel(s) used (e.g. face-to-face, boadcast media, such as TV, radio, loudspeaker) and the setting of an office (as context).

komunikačná sieť

communicative act 

pragmalinguistics stylistics

A communicative act is an utterance, or set of utterances (communicative act set), that we use to perform some sort of linguistic action or function in communication. The length and complexity of these acts can vary greatly. Sometimes they only contain one word (e.g., the greeting “Hello!”) and other times they consist of numerous words and even sentences in a complex sequence (e.g., “Good Morning, Professor. It is a pleasure to meet you.”). The meaning of any communicative act depends also on non-verbal signals, such as gestures and even silence.

Any language use is referred to as an act of communication. For example, we use language to apologize (e.g. “I apologize for my words.”, request, compliment, invite, refuse, greet, and complain (e.g. “I heard you singing at the karaoke last night. It sounded like you were enjoying yourself!”).

komunikačný akt

commutation  test

phonetics phonology

Commutation test demonstrates the phonemic opposition by means of substituting one sound for another in a particular phonological context with the change in meaning; this test was commonly used to determine, whether the sounds were phonemes or allophones; the test is based on the comparison of the pronunciation features of various sounds.

The words pin [pɪn] and pan [pæn] differ only in two sounds [ɪ] and [æ]. When comparing the pronunciation features of these two sounds, they are recognized as two different sounds, therefore, they are categorized as phonemes.

komutačný test

comparative 

morphology

when we compare different degrees of qualities, properties, states, conditions, relations, etc. between two entities; the term indicating “more than”; it is marked either by infletion ‘-er’ or perophrastically by the adverb ‘more’.

newer, faster, lower, happier, cleverer more interesting, more slowly,

komparatív, druhý stupeň pri stupňovaní

comparison 

morphology

the act of comparing things, people, entities, etc, the verbal expression of which can have two degrees - comparative (2nd degree) and superlative (3rd degree); both degrees can be expressed inflectionally (by adding -er/-est) or perisphrastically (by adding adverbs more and the most)

2nd degree: slower, more intriguing 3rd degree: slowest, the most intriguing

stupňovanie (prídavných mien, prísloviek)

complement 

syntax

a sentence element (part of the predicate) expressed by a noun phrase or an adjective phrase which provides information about the subject (subject complement) or object (object complement) of the clause/sentence; sometimes called ‘predicate phrase’

He is really smart. Sarah is
a pretty girl. They elected him president. Everybody found the concert outstanding.

doplnok (komplement); v slovenčine tento vetný člen existuje, ale funguje na inom princípe (spája sa s plnovýznamovým slovesom)

complementary  antonym

lexicology

a type of usually non-gradable antonym where the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and there is no third possibility existing between the pair of lexical items

single – married, male – female, true – false

komplementárne antonymum

complementary  distribution

phonetics phonology

It occurs when two accents have the same sound system but in some words, the sounds produced have slightly different pronunciation features.

For example, happy in RP is pronounced as [ˈhæp.i], while in Estuary English [i] at the end is pronounced as longer [ˈhæp.i:].

komplementárna distribúcia

componential analysis 

lexicology

the analysis of the meaning of semantically related words into their minimal semantic components or semantic features which serve to distinguish them

man has the semantic features [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALE], while girl has the components [+HUMAN, -ADULT, -MALE]

komponentová analýza

compound 

word-formation

a word consisting of two or more bases

armchair, editor-in-chief, south-west

kompozitum, zložené slovo

compounding 

word-formation

word-formation process that consists in combining two or more bases to form a new lexeme

bed + room →bedroom;
news + paper →newspaper

kompozícia

conative (language function) 

pragmalinguistics stylistics

Engages the addressee directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives. In the following sentence, the word “students” is a vocative and the verb takes the form of an imperative: “Students, open your books, please”. A function of language or, more generally, communication, that is focused on, and concerned with influencing the behaviour of the addressee, and thus concerned with persuasion.

The conative function is well illustrated by the language of air- traffic control, political speeches and advertisements. Advertisement slogan: If you want to impress someone, put him on our black list (Johnnie Walker).

konatívna funkcia jazyka

concept 

lexicology

an abstract idea or thought which represents the basic characteristics of a group of objects in one’s mind; the content aspect of the linguistic sign

the very general and basic characteristics of the animal referred to as dog or the concept of a ‘dog’ in one’s mind is that of a four-legged hairy animal that barks meaning it is not a particular dog, but it is a dog as such

koncept, pojem, signifikát

conceptual meaning → denotation

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concord 

syntax

a change in inflectional form to match properties of another sentence element.

I work(0) hard. (zero inflection) She works hard. (-s – 3rd person singular inflection)

gramatická zhoda (kongruencia) podmetu s prísudkom; v slovenčine aj zhoda substantíva a jeho zhodného atribútu

conditional (clause) 

syntax

a clause that expresses a condition or hypothesis about a situation; typically, the construction contains ‘if’, ‘unless’, or ‘as long as’.

If you had stayed, you would have had a lot of fun. As long as you stick to the rules, there won’t be a problem.

vedľajšia veta podmienková

conjugation 

morphology

a system of verbal inflection; the process by which a verb changes its form depending on its relationship to nouns or pronouns that function as subjects in a sentence.

to work: I/you/we/they workø, he/she/it works, I worked

konjugácia, časovanie

connotation 

lexicology

supplementary subjective meaning of a word based on one’s associations which include attitudinal or emotional factors

the word needle may be associated with the memory of pain or blood collection on the part of the speaker/hearer

konotácia, konotačný význam

connotative  meaning → connotation

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consonance 

stylistics

The correspondence/repetition of consonants, especially those at the end of a word (typically occurs at the end of the words, but may also be found within a word or at the beginning), in a passage of prose or verse; the use of the repetition of consonants or consonant patterns as a rhyming device.

Sent and went; Dawn goes down; He stood on the road and cried; The zoo was amazing, especially the lizards and chimpanzees.

konsonancia

content word 

phonetics phonology

These are words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs bearing the main stress of a sentence.

In the phrase ‘Megan had decided.’ [ ˈmeɡən əd dɪˈsaɪdɪd ], words Megan and decided are content words.

autosémantické slovo

context 

stylistics

The set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular speech event; a general term used in linguistics to refer to specific parts of an utterance/text near to a unit which is the focus of attention.

The following statement illustrates that the broader situation (in which something was said) or language uttered before or after something (that was said) is very important because it contributes to the interpretation of meaning: “It is unfair to quote out of context.”

kontext

context
of culture 

stylistics

Knowledge of the relevant features of the world, socio-cultural background of the discourse. By context of culture is meant the meanings and assumptions we share as a community of people. It also incorporates “the culturally evolved expectations of ways of behaving” and getting things done (Hammond et al, 1992, p.2).

For example, the buying and selling of goods will vary from culture to culture. In some cultures bartering is always acceptable, it even may be a must, but in Slovakia as in many other countries selling goods at fixed prices is the most common state of affairs.

kultúrny kontext

contextualization 

stylistics

To put (a linguistic element) in a context, especially one that is characteristic or appropriate, as for purposes of study; the use of language and discourse to signal relevant aspects of an interactional or communicative situation.

“We need to contextualize an unknown word before we can figure out and understand its meaning”. In other words, putting a word into a context (e.g. using it in an utterance) is helpful for bringing out its meaning.

kontextualizácia

continuant 

phonetics phonology

Continuant is any sound which can be produced as a continuous sound with no obstruction to the airflow.

One of the oppositions between [b] and [m] is that due to [m] being a nasal sound it is possible to produce it continuously, even though the place of articulation and manner of articulation of [b] and [m] are the same.

kontinuant

contoid 

phonetics phonology

Contoids are all sounds having phonetic characteristics of consonants, which means that some of their pronunciation features resemble those of vowels (the term, along with vocoid, was coined by K. L. Pike).

For example [j] in word yet - [jet].

kontoid

contracted form 

morphology

a phonologically reduced or simplified form attached to the preceding word by means of the apostrophe

‘I’m’ is a contracted form of ‘I am’ isn’t = is not; can’t = cannot; we’re = we are; I’d = I would or I had

v slovenčine tento koncept nie je, a preto slovenský termín neexistuje;

conversation analysis 

general linguistics stylistics

The study of the talk produced in ordinary human interactions. Sociologist Harvey Sacks (1935-1975) is generally credited with founding the discipline. (Also labelled as talk-in-interaction and ethnomethodology); a method of studying the sequential structure and coherence of conversations (in their everyday sense), usually employing the techniques of ethnometodology; based on recordings of real conversations; inductive, empirical study.

Through conversation analysis a very common structure has been identified, namely the adjacency pair. This is an ordered pair of adjacent utterances spoken by two different speakers. Once the first utterance is spoken, the second is required. A few of the many adjacency pairs that have been identified are shown.
Summons - answer
A: “
Can I get some help here?”
B: “On my way”.
Offer - refusal
Sales clerk:
“May I help you find something?”
Customer:
“No thank you, I’m just looking.”
Compliment - acceptance
A:
“Your hair looks very lovely today. B: “Thank you. I just had it cut”.
(William O’Grady
, et al. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. Bedford, 2001)

konverzačná analýza

conversational implicature 

stylistics pragmalinguistics

An indirect or implicit speech act in which what is meant by a speaker’s utterance is not part of what is explicitly said; it is based on stereotyped expectations of what would, more often than not, be the case.

Husband: “How much longer will you be?” Wife: “Mix yourself a drink”. The wife´s implicature is that she doesn’t know or is not going to offer a particular time, but she may be long enough for him to have a drink.

konverzačná implikatúra

converse  (antonym)

lexicology

a type of antonym where they mutually imply the converse meaning of the other

sell – buy, teacher – pupil,
before
– after

konverzné, vzťahové antonymum

conversion 

word-formation

word-formation process in which the base form of word is converted to a different word class without the addition of an affix

verbs from nouns: saw →to saw, mask → to mask, hand → to hand; nouns from verbs: to break → a break, to walk → a walk; adjectives from nouns: a sectret → secret, an orange → orange

V slovenskom jazyku neexistuje pre daný termín rovnocenný ekvivalent. Pre podobný slovotvorný proces v slovenčine sa používa termín transflexia.

copula 
linking verb

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copular verb linking verb

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co-text 

stylistics

Co-text refers to linguistic material in the surrounding text, to the parts of an utterance (or text) near a unit which is the focus of attention; the words surrounding a particular word or passage within a text that provide linguistic context and help to determine meaning.

Consider the interpretation of the statement: “I´ve been there as a response to: “India is a magic place.” and as a response to: “A: “I got back to my car a mere three minutes after the meter expired, and I still got a parking ticket!” B: Ugh, I´ve been there.” It is the preceding utterance (co-text) that is a clue to the interpretation of the statement (either in its literal meaning or figurative meaning).

kotext

count noun countable noun

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countable noun 

morphology

a noun denoting an entity that is countable, i.e. a noun that can combine with numerals (seven days, three times). It is a grammatical distinction of nouns that refers to objects, people, animals, and abstract entities that are treated as easily counted. On certain circumstances, some uncountable nouns may have a countable meaning; if so, they are treated as countable nouns.

a book, a car, a dog, a cake Compare: iron (UC) vs. an iron (C), paper vs a paper, chicken vs. a chicken

počítateľné podstatné meno v angličtine, slovenčina takýto koncept pozná, ale nie ako gramatickú kategóriu

creole 

stylistics

A pidgin that has become the native language of a speech community.

Krio is a creole spoken by 200,000 Sierra Leonean.

kreolizovaný jazyk

critical discourse analysis (CDA)

stylistics

An interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that views language as a form of social practice. Scholars working in the tradition of CDA generally argue that (non-linguistic) social practice and linguistic practice are interlinked and focus on investigating how societal power relations are established and reinforced through language use. For example, its aim is to disclose or reveal how different mechanisms of power, conflicts, opinions, prejudices appearing in discourse lead to discrimination of certain social groups.

Obama´s speech has been analyzed in this respect and the outcomes of such analyses have shown which key ideological components he tended to apply (liberalism, pragmatism, inclusiveness, acceptance of religious and ethnic diversity).

kritická analýza diskurzu